The Cold War refers to the strained relations that existed between the western world led principally by the United States and the communist East led by the USSR, after the Second World War.
It was so called because it was fought not with weapons, but with words, propaganda, military and financial aid to enemies of the opposing sides.
Although there was no actual physical confrontation, Cold War was characterized by a conflict of the most serious and deadly kind.
Causes of the Cold War
a) Ideological differences. There was deep-seated fear and mutual suspicion between
USA and USSR over the spread of their ideologies-capitalism and communism. E.g
The establishment of the Soviet Union through acquisition of satellite states was a
measure to contain capitalism.
b) Disagreement over the issue of disarmament. The use of atomic bomb on Japan by
USA towards the end of World War II alarmed USSR. The two sides failed to agree on
an arms reduction plan and continued to stockpile atomic bombs.
c) Economic rivalry. In 1947, the USA President Harry S. Truman introduced the Marshal Plan, a scheme to assist western European countries that had been devastated by war. The USSR in turn formed Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), an economic cooperative plan for Eastern Europe. This further heightened the hostility between the west and the east.
d) Formation of military alliances. In April 1949, the USA, western European countries
and Canada formed a military alliance through the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington D.C. (NATO). The formation of NATO ended USA’s isolationist policy. Russians responded by signing the Warsaw Pact, in May 1955, a military alliance of communist countries. These alliances fostered hostility between countries.
e) The use of Russian veto powers in the UN. Russia used her veto powers to defeat UN
proposals, which she accused of being pro-USA. The struggle by the two powers to dominate the UN increased tension between them.
f) Disagreement over the future of Germany as a whole. Western allies wanted a strong Germany to assist in the economic prosperity of other nations. Russia was keen on a politically and economically weak Germany to safeguard against another invasion.
NB: In 1961, the USSR built the Berlin Wall, thus dividing East Berlin from West Berlin.
g) USA’s military advancement. By 1945, the USA was the only country that possessed atomic weapons. This created fear.
Course of Cold War
The cold war was fought in Europe Asia, Latin America and Africa,
The course of the Cold War in Europe
The cold war in Europe involved a conflict between the West and the East. The highlights of this conflict included Russia’s overwhelming encroachment and dominance of Eastern Europe. Russia used her military might to impose communist governments on many states like Poland and Romania. They also fanned civil wars. E.g the Greek civil war of 1946.
The following are the major developments that characterized cold war in Europe
a) In March 1947, the US president Harry Truman, through ‘The Truman Doctrine’ declared that the USA would support free people resisting subjugation by armed minorities. In 1947, USA took over Britain’s commitment in Greece and turkey to support the anti-communist regimes.
b) In 1947, the US Secretary of state, George Marshall came up with a proposal which
was to become the Marshall Plan. This was a plan through which the US would make a major contribution to the economic recovery of Europe. The plan was rejected by USSR terming it an American interference in the internal affairs of other nations.
c) Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) to coordinate the
work of communist parties in Europe and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) to counter the US Marshal Plan.
d) The NATO and Warsaw Pact. By the treaty of Brussels in March 1948, Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg formed a defensive alliance against any form of aggression (It became the North Atlantic Treaty Organization-NATO, in April 1949 when other European Nations joined it.
In response to NATO, the Soviet Union signed the Warsaw Pact in Poland on 14th May 1955 with East \Germany and six Eastern European countries. The existence of NATO and Warsaw Pact only intensified the hostilities.
e) The Berlin Blockade. Germany was divided into two zones, East and West. Russia
treated East Germany as a satellite state thus curtailing trade between east and west. This move almost led to starvation in the west as East Germany was the main producer.
In May 1948, all roads and rail routes into West Berlin were sealed off by Russian troops. For over two years, food, coal medical supplies and other necessities to the 2 million people in West Berlin were airlifted since there was no land linkage. The blockade ended in may 1949 with diverstating consequences.
f) Partition of Germany. The west was prepared to give freedom to the Germans as a
whole to decide their own fate. Russia was determined to ensure that East Germany remained dominated by communism under Russian control.
On 23rd may 1949, the western occupation zone in Germany became the Federal
Republic of Germany with Konrad Adenauer as the chancellor in September
elections.
On 7th October 1949, the soviet zone formed the Germany Democratic Republic.
In August 1961, the East Germans built the Berlin Wall, curtailing communication and flow of refugees from the west.
The cold war was fought in Asia
In Asia, China was the first front of Cold War. She embraced communism, following the
successful takeover of the country by the forces of Mao Tse-tung in October 1949, assisted by the Russians. The Sino-Soviet Treaty of friendship was signed in 1950.
Korea, formerly controlled by Japan, was another front for cold war in Asia. When Japan
was defeated in 1945, Korea was occupied from the south by American forces, from the north by Russians, placing the country under joint control. The occupying powers failed to unite the two Korea sections when she became independent.
In 1948, the USA announced the formation of the Independent Democratic Republic of Korea in the South. The Russians formed the Peoples Republic of Korea in the north.
On 25th June 1950, North Korea Forces invaded South Korea in an attempt to unite. UN condemned this and An American General, Douglas MacArthur led the UN forced that repulsed the invaders.
The cold war spread to Vietnam, with USSR and USA clashing over Vietnam, formerly a
colony of France that had been seized by Japan. The two super powers supported different nationalist leaders in the struggle for independence from France. The Russians supported Ho Chi-Minh who led a revolt by the Vietnamese, against the French.
USA supported Ngo Dinh Diem. The Vietnam War erupted as a result. The Vietnam War was the heaviest cost of containing communism by Americans in a distant country. Americans were humiliatingly defeated in 1975 with a causality of 53,000, despite employing over 400,000 troops. The communist guerillas, the Viet Cong, established a communist government in South Vietnam. The war strengthened American hostility towards Russia
There was an armed conflict between the super powers in Afghanistan from 1978. The
height of the conflict in Afghanistan was the Boycott of the Moscow Olympic Games in
1980 as a protest against USSR’s involvement in Afghanistan. The conflict took the form
of a civil war which was only eased in 1989 when the USSR began to withdraw its troops.
The cold war in Latin America (the Cuban Missile Crisis)
Cuba became the theatre of cold war when USA unsuccessfully supported the Cuban dictator, General Fulgencio Batista against Fidel Castro who was fighting to end Batista’s regime. Fidel Castro overthrew the Batista regime in 1958. The new government
immediately gained recognition from many world nations including USA and USSR
In 1960, Fidel began a communist nationalization programme of American oil refineries and sugar plantations. This strained relations between him and the US who attempted unsuccessfully to invade Cuba in 1961 at Bay of Pigs. In January 1962, Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States.
In May 1962, USSR leader Nikita Khrushchev secretly built missile installations in Cuba as a means of countering any future American invasion, in exchange for sugar.
The discovery, by American president J. F. Kennedy in October 1962, of the Russian
missile installations in Cuba was the beginning of the most serious cold war crisis. He declared that any nuclear missile attack from Cuba would be taken to be an attack by the USSR and USA would respond accordingly.
USA declared a Naval Quarantine on Cuba to blockade any Russian Vessels. This most serious cold war crisis was only ended when the Russian leader Khrushchev removed the missiles from Cuba and dismantled Russia’s bases in Cuba.
The Cold War in Africa
The cold war in Africa was majorly witnessed in Ethiopia and Angola.
In Ethiopia, Mengistu Haile - Mariam, overthrew Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, with the assistance of USSR. Haile Mariam introduced socialist programmes, However, they were short-lived up to the end of his rule in May 1991, when Russians withdrew their assistance.
In Angola, on 11th November 1975, Angola attained her independence from Portugal, with the assistance of the Soviet Union and Cuba.
Soon after, a bruising civil war broke out. USA supported the rebels, led by Jonas Savimbi and his UNITA movement based in Ovimbudu. Cuba and Russia supported the MPLA government based in Luanda. Democratic elections were held in Angola in 1989, when USSR eased their aid to MPLA. Factors that led to the Cold War détente by world powers.
a) The death of Stalin and the flexibility of Stalin’s successor, Nikita Khrushchev. The successor of Joseph Stalin, after his death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev, was more flexible and willing to relax both cold war abroad and Authoritarianism at home. He announced the policy of peaceful coexistence in 1956.
b) The willingness of David Dwight Eisenhower, Truman’s successor, to reach compromise with the Soviet Union over a number of issues. For example he convened the Camp David Summit in 1959, with Khrushchev in which a cooperative spirit emerged between the east and the west. However this happened against the backdrop of the Cuban missile crisis.
c) The signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (The SALT Treaty) in 1972. The
treaty, signed between USA and Russia limited strategic arms to certain quantities.
This was followed by the Improvement of the Chinese -American relations in 1972
and American relations with Russia. In 1972. President Nixon visited Beijing and
Moscow
d) The introduction of reforms in Russia by Mikhail Gorbachev. In 1985, Gorbachev
introduced the Glasnost (openness policy) and the perestroika reforms (economic
restructuring that appealed favourably to the west) which won him the Nobel peace
Prize in 1990.
e) The adoption of President Reagan’s Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) in 1983. This
initiative led to setting up of space stations that would destroy every missile in the sky. This was Star Wars.
f) The collapse of the Communist rule in Europe. Russia’s president recognized the independence of other republics of USSR in 1989 thus weakening Russia’s position. Western democracy was introduced in Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Poland.
g) The successful re-unification of Germany under Helmut Kohl in 1990. The nations united to form the republic of Germany. This was a clear indicator of the joint commitment of the superpowers in maintaining their spheres of influence had been weakened.
h) The dissolution of the Warsaw Pact. With the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the Warsaw pact started to fall apart. In November 1990, the Paris Charter was signed, effectively dissolving the Warsaw Pact.
i) The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990. Several of its states seceded. Russia officially became an aid receiver instead of an aid donor.
j) The signing of the START Treaty in 1991 by Gorbachev and George Bush, after the
Strategic Arms Reduction Talks. The treaty officially ended the cold war. Destruction
of weapons of mass destruction commenced.
Effects of the cold war
a. It brought immense divisions and conflict to people of the same continent, region and countries based on pro-west or pro-east ideologies. E.g. in Angola
b. Oppressive regimes found their way to power, supported by either the west or the
east.
c. There was untold suffering to the people. Disease, poverty and refugee camps
became common sights.
d. There was destruction of the economy as infrastructure was destroyed by war. As communist systems failed to produce wealth, unemployment and poverty set in.
e. It created mistrust and suspicion amongst nations.
f. It led to arms race. It led to militarization of regions and countries.
g. It led to political crises and actual war e.g. civil wars in Korea and Vietnam, the Suez
Canal crisis of 1956 and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.
h. It threatened international peace and security. Insecurity in the world increased.
i. Led to formation of Non-Aligned Movement by third world countries.
j. Led to formation of economic alliances and military alliances like NATO (1949) and the Warsaw pact (1955). COMECON (1949) and the European Economic Union (1957.
k. The cold war led to development in science and technology. The war Stimulated
space science/space race.
Effects of the end of Cold War on Africa.
a) Some African countries that were formerly socialist are in problems following collapse of USSR in 1990. E.g. Somalia, Ethiopia, Angola and Mozambique.
b) The end of the cold war has led to the removal of financial aid and military support for some African countries. Military or food aid is no longer rushed to countries experiencing problems because there is no more superpower competition. E.g failure to prevent the Rwanda genocide and failure to assist in the Somali crisis and the current Al-shabaab crisis.
c) There was emergence of new world political and economic order. The end of war has led to emergence of USA as a ‘world policeman’ over developing nations. The countries must act according to USA wishes or suffer lack of aid and receive harassment from superpowers.
d) It has led to marginalization of Africa in international affairs.
e) There are conditional ties for getting aid from the western powers. Besides, Africa no
longer has a choice of donors who comprise mainly of western world countries.
It was so called because it was fought not with weapons, but with words, propaganda, military and financial aid to enemies of the opposing sides.
Although there was no actual physical confrontation, Cold War was characterized by a conflict of the most serious and deadly kind.
Causes of the Cold War
a) Ideological differences. There was deep-seated fear and mutual suspicion between
USA and USSR over the spread of their ideologies-capitalism and communism. E.g
The establishment of the Soviet Union through acquisition of satellite states was a
measure to contain capitalism.
b) Disagreement over the issue of disarmament. The use of atomic bomb on Japan by
USA towards the end of World War II alarmed USSR. The two sides failed to agree on
an arms reduction plan and continued to stockpile atomic bombs.
c) Economic rivalry. In 1947, the USA President Harry S. Truman introduced the Marshal Plan, a scheme to assist western European countries that had been devastated by war. The USSR in turn formed Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), an economic cooperative plan for Eastern Europe. This further heightened the hostility between the west and the east.
d) Formation of military alliances. In April 1949, the USA, western European countries
and Canada formed a military alliance through the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington D.C. (NATO). The formation of NATO ended USA’s isolationist policy. Russians responded by signing the Warsaw Pact, in May 1955, a military alliance of communist countries. These alliances fostered hostility between countries.
e) The use of Russian veto powers in the UN. Russia used her veto powers to defeat UN
proposals, which she accused of being pro-USA. The struggle by the two powers to dominate the UN increased tension between them.
f) Disagreement over the future of Germany as a whole. Western allies wanted a strong Germany to assist in the economic prosperity of other nations. Russia was keen on a politically and economically weak Germany to safeguard against another invasion.
NB: In 1961, the USSR built the Berlin Wall, thus dividing East Berlin from West Berlin.
g) USA’s military advancement. By 1945, the USA was the only country that possessed atomic weapons. This created fear.
Course of Cold War
The cold war was fought in Europe Asia, Latin America and Africa,
The course of the Cold War in Europe
The cold war in Europe involved a conflict between the West and the East. The highlights of this conflict included Russia’s overwhelming encroachment and dominance of Eastern Europe. Russia used her military might to impose communist governments on many states like Poland and Romania. They also fanned civil wars. E.g the Greek civil war of 1946.
There were widespread outbreaks of violence and demands of freedoms in Poland and Romania, based on western ideologies, in politics and economy. In Czechoslovakia, communist Russia orchestrated protests against reforms based on western ideologies, by the Dubcek Government, which was supported by the west. Dubcek was arrested and flown to Moscow. Dr. Husak, a Russian ally was installed.
The following are the major developments that characterized cold war in Europe
a) In March 1947, the US president Harry Truman, through ‘The Truman Doctrine’ declared that the USA would support free people resisting subjugation by armed minorities. In 1947, USA took over Britain’s commitment in Greece and turkey to support the anti-communist regimes.
b) In 1947, the US Secretary of state, George Marshall came up with a proposal which
was to become the Marshall Plan. This was a plan through which the US would make a major contribution to the economic recovery of Europe. The plan was rejected by USSR terming it an American interference in the internal affairs of other nations.
c) Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) to coordinate the
work of communist parties in Europe and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) to counter the US Marshal Plan.
d) The NATO and Warsaw Pact. By the treaty of Brussels in March 1948, Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg formed a defensive alliance against any form of aggression (It became the North Atlantic Treaty Organization-NATO, in April 1949 when other European Nations joined it.
In response to NATO, the Soviet Union signed the Warsaw Pact in Poland on 14th May 1955 with East \Germany and six Eastern European countries. The existence of NATO and Warsaw Pact only intensified the hostilities.
e) The Berlin Blockade. Germany was divided into two zones, East and West. Russia
treated East Germany as a satellite state thus curtailing trade between east and west. This move almost led to starvation in the west as East Germany was the main producer.
In May 1948, all roads and rail routes into West Berlin were sealed off by Russian troops. For over two years, food, coal medical supplies and other necessities to the 2 million people in West Berlin were airlifted since there was no land linkage. The blockade ended in may 1949 with diverstating consequences.
f) Partition of Germany. The west was prepared to give freedom to the Germans as a
whole to decide their own fate. Russia was determined to ensure that East Germany remained dominated by communism under Russian control.
On 23rd may 1949, the western occupation zone in Germany became the Federal
Republic of Germany with Konrad Adenauer as the chancellor in September
elections.
On 7th October 1949, the soviet zone formed the Germany Democratic Republic.
In August 1961, the East Germans built the Berlin Wall, curtailing communication and flow of refugees from the west.
The cold war was fought in Asia
In Asia, China was the first front of Cold War. She embraced communism, following the
successful takeover of the country by the forces of Mao Tse-tung in October 1949, assisted by the Russians. The Sino-Soviet Treaty of friendship was signed in 1950.
Korea, formerly controlled by Japan, was another front for cold war in Asia. When Japan
was defeated in 1945, Korea was occupied from the south by American forces, from the north by Russians, placing the country under joint control. The occupying powers failed to unite the two Korea sections when she became independent.
In 1948, the USA announced the formation of the Independent Democratic Republic of Korea in the South. The Russians formed the Peoples Republic of Korea in the north.
On 25th June 1950, North Korea Forces invaded South Korea in an attempt to unite. UN condemned this and An American General, Douglas MacArthur led the UN forced that repulsed the invaders.
The cold war spread to Vietnam, with USSR and USA clashing over Vietnam, formerly a
colony of France that had been seized by Japan. The two super powers supported different nationalist leaders in the struggle for independence from France. The Russians supported Ho Chi-Minh who led a revolt by the Vietnamese, against the French.
USA supported Ngo Dinh Diem. The Vietnam War erupted as a result. The Vietnam War was the heaviest cost of containing communism by Americans in a distant country. Americans were humiliatingly defeated in 1975 with a causality of 53,000, despite employing over 400,000 troops. The communist guerillas, the Viet Cong, established a communist government in South Vietnam. The war strengthened American hostility towards Russia
There was an armed conflict between the super powers in Afghanistan from 1978. The
height of the conflict in Afghanistan was the Boycott of the Moscow Olympic Games in
1980 as a protest against USSR’s involvement in Afghanistan. The conflict took the form
of a civil war which was only eased in 1989 when the USSR began to withdraw its troops.
The cold war in Latin America (the Cuban Missile Crisis)
Cuba became the theatre of cold war when USA unsuccessfully supported the Cuban dictator, General Fulgencio Batista against Fidel Castro who was fighting to end Batista’s regime. Fidel Castro overthrew the Batista regime in 1958. The new government
immediately gained recognition from many world nations including USA and USSR
In 1960, Fidel began a communist nationalization programme of American oil refineries and sugar plantations. This strained relations between him and the US who attempted unsuccessfully to invade Cuba in 1961 at Bay of Pigs. In January 1962, Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States.
In May 1962, USSR leader Nikita Khrushchev secretly built missile installations in Cuba as a means of countering any future American invasion, in exchange for sugar.
The discovery, by American president J. F. Kennedy in October 1962, of the Russian
missile installations in Cuba was the beginning of the most serious cold war crisis. He declared that any nuclear missile attack from Cuba would be taken to be an attack by the USSR and USA would respond accordingly.
USA declared a Naval Quarantine on Cuba to blockade any Russian Vessels. This most serious cold war crisis was only ended when the Russian leader Khrushchev removed the missiles from Cuba and dismantled Russia’s bases in Cuba.
The Cold War in Africa
The cold war in Africa was majorly witnessed in Ethiopia and Angola.
In Ethiopia, Mengistu Haile - Mariam, overthrew Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, with the assistance of USSR. Haile Mariam introduced socialist programmes, However, they were short-lived up to the end of his rule in May 1991, when Russians withdrew their assistance.
In Angola, on 11th November 1975, Angola attained her independence from Portugal, with the assistance of the Soviet Union and Cuba.
Soon after, a bruising civil war broke out. USA supported the rebels, led by Jonas Savimbi and his UNITA movement based in Ovimbudu. Cuba and Russia supported the MPLA government based in Luanda. Democratic elections were held in Angola in 1989, when USSR eased their aid to MPLA. Factors that led to the Cold War détente by world powers.
a) The death of Stalin and the flexibility of Stalin’s successor, Nikita Khrushchev. The successor of Joseph Stalin, after his death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev, was more flexible and willing to relax both cold war abroad and Authoritarianism at home. He announced the policy of peaceful coexistence in 1956.
b) The willingness of David Dwight Eisenhower, Truman’s successor, to reach compromise with the Soviet Union over a number of issues. For example he convened the Camp David Summit in 1959, with Khrushchev in which a cooperative spirit emerged between the east and the west. However this happened against the backdrop of the Cuban missile crisis.
c) The signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (The SALT Treaty) in 1972. The
treaty, signed between USA and Russia limited strategic arms to certain quantities.
This was followed by the Improvement of the Chinese -American relations in 1972
and American relations with Russia. In 1972. President Nixon visited Beijing and
Moscow
d) The introduction of reforms in Russia by Mikhail Gorbachev. In 1985, Gorbachev
introduced the Glasnost (openness policy) and the perestroika reforms (economic
restructuring that appealed favourably to the west) which won him the Nobel peace
Prize in 1990.
e) The adoption of President Reagan’s Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) in 1983. This
initiative led to setting up of space stations that would destroy every missile in the sky. This was Star Wars.
f) The collapse of the Communist rule in Europe. Russia’s president recognized the independence of other republics of USSR in 1989 thus weakening Russia’s position. Western democracy was introduced in Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Poland.
g) The successful re-unification of Germany under Helmut Kohl in 1990. The nations united to form the republic of Germany. This was a clear indicator of the joint commitment of the superpowers in maintaining their spheres of influence had been weakened.
h) The dissolution of the Warsaw Pact. With the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the Warsaw pact started to fall apart. In November 1990, the Paris Charter was signed, effectively dissolving the Warsaw Pact.
i) The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990. Several of its states seceded. Russia officially became an aid receiver instead of an aid donor.
j) The signing of the START Treaty in 1991 by Gorbachev and George Bush, after the
Strategic Arms Reduction Talks. The treaty officially ended the cold war. Destruction
of weapons of mass destruction commenced.
Effects of the cold war
a. It brought immense divisions and conflict to people of the same continent, region and countries based on pro-west or pro-east ideologies. E.g. in Angola
b. Oppressive regimes found their way to power, supported by either the west or the
east.
c. There was untold suffering to the people. Disease, poverty and refugee camps
became common sights.
d. There was destruction of the economy as infrastructure was destroyed by war. As communist systems failed to produce wealth, unemployment and poverty set in.
e. It created mistrust and suspicion amongst nations.
f. It led to arms race. It led to militarization of regions and countries.
g. It led to political crises and actual war e.g. civil wars in Korea and Vietnam, the Suez
Canal crisis of 1956 and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.
h. It threatened international peace and security. Insecurity in the world increased.
i. Led to formation of Non-Aligned Movement by third world countries.
j. Led to formation of economic alliances and military alliances like NATO (1949) and the Warsaw pact (1955). COMECON (1949) and the European Economic Union (1957.
k. The cold war led to development in science and technology. The war Stimulated
space science/space race.
Effects of the end of Cold War on Africa.
a) Some African countries that were formerly socialist are in problems following collapse of USSR in 1990. E.g. Somalia, Ethiopia, Angola and Mozambique.
b) The end of the cold war has led to the removal of financial aid and military support for some African countries. Military or food aid is no longer rushed to countries experiencing problems because there is no more superpower competition. E.g failure to prevent the Rwanda genocide and failure to assist in the Somali crisis and the current Al-shabaab crisis.
c) There was emergence of new world political and economic order. The end of war has led to emergence of USA as a ‘world policeman’ over developing nations. The countries must act according to USA wishes or suffer lack of aid and receive harassment from superpowers.
d) It has led to marginalization of Africa in international affairs.
e) There are conditional ties for getting aid from the western powers. Besides, Africa no
longer has a choice of donors who comprise mainly of western world countries.
